Wednesday, November 27, 2019

Overview of the Nika Revolt

Overview of the Nika Revolt The Nika Revolt was a devastating riot that took place in early medieval Constantinople, in the Eastern Roman Empire. It threatened the life and reign of Emperor Justinian. The Nika Revolt was also known as: the Nika Rebellion, the Nika Uprising, the Nika Riot, the Nike Revolt, the Nike Rebellion, the Nike Uprising, the Nike Riot The Nika Revolt took place in: January, 532 C.E., in Constantinople The Hippodrome The Hippodrome was the site in Constantinople where enormous crowds gathered to watch exciting chariot races and similar spectacles. Several other sports had been outlawed over the preceding decades, so chariot races were particularly welcome occasions. But events in the Hippodrome sometimes led to violence among the spectators, and more than one riot had begun there in the past. The Nika Revolt would begin and, several days later, end in the Hippodrome. Nika! Fans in the Hippodrome would cheer on their favorite charioteers and chariot teams with the cry, Nika!, which has been variously translated as Conquer!, Win! and Victory! In the Nika Revolt, this was the cry the rioters took up. The Blues and the Greens The charioteers and their teams were garbed in specific colors (as were their horses and the chariots themselves); the fans who followed these teams identified with their colors. There had been reds and whites, but by the time of Justinians reign, the most popular by far were the Blues and the Greens. The fans that followed the chariot teams retained their identity beyond the Hippodrome, and at times they wielded considerable cultural influence. Scholars once thought that the Blues and the Greens each associated with particular political movements, but there is little evidence to support this. It is now believed that the primary interest of the Blues and the Greens was their racing teams, and that occasional violence sometimes spilled over from the Hippodrome into other aspects of Byzantine society without any real direction from fan leaders. For several decades, it had been traditional for the emperor to choose either the Blues or the Greens to support, which virtually guaranteed the two most powerful teams would not be able to join together against the imperial government. But Justinian was a different breed of emperor. Once, years before he took the throne, he had been believed to favor the Blues; but now, because he wanted to remain above partisan politics even of the most superficial kind, he did not throw his support behind any charioteer. This would prove to be a serious mistake. The New Reign of Emperor Justinian Justinian had become co-emperor with his uncle, Justin, in April of 527, and he became sole emperor when Justin died four months later. Justin had risen from humble beginnings; Justinian was also considered by many senators to be of low birth, and not truly worthy of their respect. Most scholars agree that Justinian had a sincere wish to improve the empire, the capital city of Constantinople, and the lives of the people who lived there. Unfortunately, the measures he took to accomplish this proved disruptive. Justinians ambitious plans to reconquer Roman territory, his extensive building projects, and his ongoing war with Persia all required funding, which meant more and more taxes; and his wish to end corruption in the government led him to appoint some overzealous officials whose severe measures caused resentment in several levels of society. Things looked very bad when a riot broke out over the extreme strictures employed by one of Justinians most unpopular officials, John of Cappadocia. The riot was put down with brutal force, many participants were jailed, and those ringleaders that were captured were sentenced to death. This engendered further unrest among the citizenry. It was in this heightened state of tension that Constantinople was suspended in the early days of January, 532. The Botched Execution When the ringleaders of the riot were supposed to be executed, the job was botched, and two of them escaped. One was a fan of the Blues, the other a fan of the Greens. Both were hidden away safely in a monastery. Their supporters decided to ask the emperor for leniency for these two men at the next chariot race. The Riot Breaks Out On January 13, 532, when the chariot races were scheduled to begin, members of both the Blues and the Greens loudly pleaded with the emperor to show mercy to the two men that Fortune had rescued from the gallows. When no response was forthcoming, both factions began to cry out, Nika! Nika! The chant, so often heard in the Hippodrome in support of one charioteer or another, was now directed against Justinian. The Hippodrome erupted in violence, and soon the mob took to the streets. Their first objective was the  praetorian,  which was, essentially, the headquarters of Constantinoples police department and the municipal jail. The rioters released the prisoners and set the building on fire. Before long a substantial portion of the city was in flames, including the  Hagia Sophia  and several other great buildings. From Riot to Rebellion It is not clear how soon members of the aristocracy became involved, but by the time the city was on fire, there were signs that forces were attempting to use the incident to overthrow an unpopular emperor. Justinian recognized the danger and tried to appease his opposition by agreeing to remove from office those responsible for conceiving of and carrying out the most unpopular policies. But this gesture of conciliation was rebuffed, and rioting continued. Then Justinian ordered  General Belisarius  to squelch the riot; but in this, the estimable soldier and the emperors troops failed. Justinian and his closest supporters stayed holed up in the palace while the riot raged and the city burned. Then, on January 18, the emperor tried once more to find a compromise. But when he appeared in the Hippodrome, all of his offers were rejected out of hand. It was at this point that rioters proposed another candidate for the emperor: Hypatius, nephew of the late Emperor Anastasius I. A political coup was at hand. Hypatius Though related to a former emperor, Hypatius had never been a serious candidate for the throne. Hed led an  undistinguished  career first as a military officer, and now as a senator and was probably content to remain out of the limelight. According to  Procopius, Hypatius and his brother Pompeius had stayed with Justinian in the palace during the riot, until the emperor grew suspicious of them and their vague connection to the purple, and threw them out. The brothers did not want to leave, fearing they would be used by the rioters and the anti-Justinian faction. This, of course, is exactly what happened. Procopius relates that his wife, Mary, took hold of Hypatius and wouldnt let  go  until the crowd overwhelmed her, and her husband was carried to the throne against his will. The Moment of Truth When Hypatius was  borne  to the throne, Justinian and his entourage left the Hippodrome once more. The revolt was now too far out of hand, and there seemed no way to take control. The emperor and his associates began to discuss fleeing the city. It was Justinians wife,  Empress Theodora, who convinced them to stand firm. According to Procopius, she told her husband, ... the present time, above all others, is inopportune for flight, even though it bring safety ... For one who has been an  emperor, it is unendurable to be a fugitive ... consider whether it will not come about after you have been saved that you would gladly exchange that safety for death. For as for myself, I approve a certain ancient saying that royalty is a good burial-shroud. Shamed by her words, and buoyed by her courage, Justinian rose to the occasion. The Nika Revolt is Crushed Once more Emperor Justinian sent General Belisarius to attack the rebels with Imperial troops. With most of the rioters confined to the Hippodrome, the results were far different than the generals first attempt: Scholars estimate that between 30,000 and 35,000 people were slaughtered. Many of the ringleaders were captured and executed, including the unfortunate Hypatius. In the face of such a massacre, the rebellion crumpled. The Aftermath of the Nika Revolt The death toll and the extensive destruction of Constantinople were horrific, and it would take years for the city and its people to recover. Arrests were ongoing after the revolt, and many families lost everything due to their connection to the rebellion. The Hippodrome was shut down, and races were suspended for five years. But for Justinian, the results of the riots were very much to his advantage. Not only was the emperor able to confiscate a number of wealthy estates, but he also returned to their offices the officials hed agreed to remove, including John of Cappadocia although, to his credit, he did keep them from going to the extremes theyd employed in the past. And his victory over the rebels garnered him new respect, if not true admiration. No one was willing to move against Justinian, and he was now able to go forward with all his ambitious plans rebuilding the city, reconquering territory in Italy, completing his law codes, among others. He also began instituting laws that curbed the powers of the senatorial class that had so looked down on him and his family. The Nika Revolt had backfired. Though Justinian had been brought to the brink of destruction, he had overcome his  enemies and would enjoy a long and fruitful reign. The text of this document is copyright  ©2012 Melissa Snell. You may download or print this document for personal or school use, as long as the URL below is included. Permission is  not  granted to reproduce this document on another website.

Saturday, November 23, 2019

Code Switching and Code Mixing

Code Switching and Code Mixing Introduction Different people in different communities use variations or codes in their communication while doing a formal conversation. We can observe this kind of conversation in legal and religious ceremonies, people’s interaction in their communities, in shops and in schools but at the same time we can observe that the variety of their interaction differs from one code to another code which can vary from high to low or vice versa.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Code Switching and Code Mixing specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More It can happen in either cases whether multilingual or bilingual depending upon the participant and situation (Code-Switching OR Code-mixing, n.d.). A code could be a language or a style of language (Code Mixing and Code Switching, 2009). Now when we talk about Code-switching and code-mixing, they are well-known traits in the speech pattern of the average bilingual in any human society the world over (Ayeomoni, 2006). They occur when bilinguals substitute words or phrases (Geetha, 2010). Constituents of one language can be found with the constituents of another language in a number of linguistic phenomena, namely lexical borrowing, transferring, interference, calquing, diffusion, reflexification, code switching and code mixing, etc. The two linguistic phenomena that are claimed to be the most established and common modes of interaction among bilingual speakers are Code switching and code mixing (Redouane, 2005). Meaning of Code Switching and Code Mixing Sometimes people, having different reasons, need to use more than one language within different social settings like, school, home, office and shops etc. For example if they want to greet their friend or they want to explain something more particularly etc. they use different codes. â€Å"Code switching is dealing with different social dimension which are related to different social factors which are a pa rticipant, status and solidarity (social distance)† (Code-Switching OR Code-mixing, n.d.). In Code Switching it is not necessary that the participant knows all the vocabularies or pronunciation of that particular language which he uses to communicate. These kinds of switches are very short and are used in different social settings for different reasons. Suppose in a company, tow workers who are speaking in Arabic and switches to French or English after they start communicating with the third person, is called Code Switching (Code-Switching OR Code-mixing, n.d.).Advertising Looking for research paper on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More â€Å"In different Arabic world with the different varieties as low or high in many places; the varieties of relationships as formal or friendly also expressed through different varieties or codes (switching through same language), for example the friendly relationshi ps expressed within low codes while formal one as relation at work or teachers to students in universities and schools are expressed within high varieties. In Jordan for instance while Jordanian Arabic accent, is varied between low and high. Anyone could use in street, in home or between friends (the low) where it could not be used with teachers or doctors or any one in high status. This is the same with different Arabian accent† (Code-Switching OR Code-mixing, n.d.). Gumperz (1982) defines code switching as â€Å"the juxtaposition within the same speech exchange of passages of speech belonging to two different grammatical systems or subsystems† (p. 59). In case of bilinguals, the behavior of switching between different languages in discourse, oral or written is considered as code switching (Ruan, 2003). Bentahila refers to code switching as â€Å"the use of two languages within a single conversation, exchange or utterance†, (Bentahila et al. 1983:302). Most rese archers have recognized two types of code switching: â€Å"Intrasentential code switching used for switches within sentences, and interasentential code switching for switches between sentences† (Redouane, 2005). Researches have been conducted on the code switching behavior of the bilingual children. Bauer Montero, (20010; Fantini, (1985); McClure, (1977); Saunders,( 1982) have studied the behavior of such children and their findings reveal that the cognitive requirements of the task and the contextual demands like participants and topics influence the bilingual children to switch languages (Ruan, 2003). Sociolinguistic studies reveal that although code switching performs important communicative functions, most educators are unaware about its nature and functions in educational settings. Code switching has long been thought to be stigmatized in education (Crowl and MacGinitie, 1974; Lara, 1989; Ramirez Milk; 1986). Code switching has been identified as a deficiency of the bi linguals who are not well developed in either language that they use (Myers-Scotton:1993) Not much emphasis has been placed on the simultaneous development of the two languages in bilingual children by the educationists. The mainstream society considers the mixing of languages in the process of getting hold of it as objectionable. So, it is highly required that the code switching behavior of the bilingual children or the beginners should be examined in order to understand this phenomenon completely (Ruan, 2003).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Code Switching and Code Mixing specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Code mixing can be related to mixing of two or more languages while doing conversation. Every bilingual experience this kind of occurrence at different stages. This linguistic device is used by bilinguals for many reasons in their communication (Mixing and Code Switching, 2010). Suwito in Sutana (1999: 17 ) says that â€Å"in the phenomenon of code mixing the dependent characteristics are indicated by the relationship between the function and role of language. The role means that who uses the language and function means what will be acquired by the speaker† (Rabu, 2011, Para 1). Wardhaugh (1986: 103) mentions that â€Å"Code mixing usually occurs in bilingual or multilingual community or society and the function (meaning) of the languages cannot be clearly separated. This code mixing is used when the conversant use both languages together to the extent that they change from one language to the other in the course of a single utterance† (Rabu, 2011, Para 3). Thelander (In Chaer, 1995: 152) explains â€Å"the definition of code mixing. He says that if in the single utterance the clauses and the phrases used are hybrid clause or hybrid phrases and each clause or phrase does not support the function of clause and phrase, it is called code mixing. The special character of c ode mixing is that, code mixing is used in informal situation. In the formal situation it may have no exact meaning in Indonesian language† Nababan (1984: 32) says that â€Å"in the written language code mixing is indicated by italic writing or underline form† (Rabu, 2011, Para 4). Code Switching and Code Mixing in Arab Students To explain the difference between code mixing and code switching following are some examples (Kiranmayi, 2010):Advertising Looking for research paper on linguistics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More â€Å"Life in cities is comfortable bass I am sick and tired of traffic. Life in cities is comfortable but I am sick and tired of traffic† In the above example only one word is mixed which is in Arabic. This is called code mixing (Kiranmayi, 2010). . â€Å"If you work hard, rÇ ½h tingah. If you work hard, you will pass† (Kiranmayi, 2010). In above example the speaker started in English but later he switches to Arabic. This is called code switching. â€Å"In Oman most English language teachers are native speakers of Arabic, and they vary considerably in terms of their mastery of the English language. In particular, it is important to note that these foreign language teachers perhaps should not be regarded as true bilinguals who can choose freely between different codes or languages. Instead, they are, more accurately, monolingual individuals who have varied skills and knowledge in English and whose task is to teach this language to the monolingual learners† (Kir anmayi, 2010). There was survey done in an Omani school. Following is some conversation between teacher and student: â€Å"Teacher: century Student: Ustaad, century yaani qarn!! (Teacher! Century means qarn?) Teacher: Yes, century means qarn. Teacher: pronunciation Students: yaani ntoq? (meaning ntoq?) Teacher: Yes, pronunciation means ntoq† (Kiranmayi, 2010). The above mentioned example shows that for interaction code switching is very important. Here we will take up a few studies conducted by different researchers on people of different age groups to understand the phenomenon (Ruan, 2003). Moroccans from formal data are represented by (F) and from informal data by (I) (Redouane, 2005). Single word â€Å" (F): tlabt waÄ §di l’immigration† (I asked alone (for) the immigration) â€Å" (I): Ê adda Ê annamshi le mall† (Tomorrow I will go to the mall) (Redouane, 2005). Larger sequences of words â€Å"(F): ji:t fi la fin du mois de dà ©cembre ka:n ljaw bared kti:r wttalj† (I came the end of the month of December, the weather was very cold and snow) (Redouane, 2005). â€Å"(I): Ê adi ntsenna:k vers 2 heures cà ´tà © du kiosque de l’information† . (I will wait for you around 2 o’clock near the information booth) (Redouane, 2005). The findings of this study have demonstrated that the speech of these Arabic: â€Å"Lingling: I got lots of candy from Trick-or-Treat. Di: Me too. I have a lot of candy and my mom won’t let me have all. (Teacher coming into the classroom) Lingling: Lao shi, ni yao bu yao yi ke tang? (Teacher, do you want a piece of candy?) Teacher: Xie xie. Bu yong. (Thanks. No.)† (Ruan, 2003). â€Å"Lingling understood that she came to the Chinese school to learn Chinese, and the teacher might expect her to use Chinese. Her sense of the status of interlocutors led to her motivation to switch† (Ruan, 2003). â€Å"While referring to the subjects taught in the Chinese scho ol, Lingling was more likely to use Chinese than English† (Ruan, 2003). She switched from English to Chinese when she talked to her friend about her WU Shu class (Chinese Martial Art ) (Ruan, 2003). â€Å"Lingling: I need to go to wu shu ke. (I need to go to Wu Shu class). Di: Yeah, punching and kicking people.† (Ruan, 2003). To Lingling, Wu Shu was a Chinese topic, and it was unlikely and inconvenient for her to translate it into its corresponding English term (Ruan, 2003). â€Å"When she talked to her classmate Kai about the most popular toys her awareness of culture-related topics was also obvious. At the time of the study many conversations were about Pokemons. In the following conversation her awareness of culture-specific topics is evident† (Ruan, 2003). The conversation started out in Chinese, but Pokemon characters prompted the switch to English (Ruan, 2003). â€Å"Meilun: Lingling, ni hua shen me? (Lingling, what are you drawing?) Lingling: Zhe shi Pich achoo (This is Pichachoo). I will draw Charizard the Flame Thrower too.† (Ruan, 2003). Moreover, code switching was frequently used as a metalinguistic device by the Chinese teacher and the children to expand and monitor teaching and learning (Ruan, 2003). â€Å"The new and complex concepts were often explained in both the languages by the teacher to ensure that the students had understood the concepts† (Ruan, 2003). The children in turn followed the same behavior (Ruan, 2003). Lingling’s verbal exchange with her teacher during a lesson on garden facilitates this finding (Ruan, 2003). â€Å"Teacher: Lingling, shen me shi hua yuan? (Lingling, what is hua yuan?) Lingling: Hua yuan jiu shi you hen duo hua, shi garden. (Hua yuan has lots of flowers, is garden.)† (Ruan, 2003). â€Å"This study suggests that as with bilingual adults, code switching is employed as communicative devices by bilingual children. Young bilingual Chinese/English children applied code- switching during their speech in order to realize different functions, such as social function, pragmatic function, and meta-linguistic function† (Ruan, 2003). The findings suggest that code switching should not be considered a sign of bilingual children’s English language learning abilities. â€Å"They should not be discriminated if they engage in code switching behaviors† (Ruan, 2003). The children can improve their literacy through using their own linguistic â€Å"funds of knowledge† (Moll, 1992) (Ruan, 2003). There is a need for more studies on code switching. It will enable the educators to acquire a better understanding of how bilingual children use languages and learn through languages (Ruan, 2003). These kinds of studies can help teachers provide appropriate instructional support to maximize bilingual children’s learning (Ruan, 2003). Man is capable of making many changes and once he has made them it is up to him how to manifest them or how to leave them and this applies on the use of languages also (Duran, 1994). Ayeomoni, M.O. â€Å"Code-Switching and Code-Mixing: Style of Language Use in Childhood in Yoruba Speech Community.† 2006. Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria, Nordic Journal of African Studies 15(1): 90–99 (2006) â€Å"Code Mixing and Code Switching†. 2009. All About English. Web. â€Å"Code-Switching OR Code-mixing†.n.d. Web. Duran, L. â€Å"Toward a Better Understanding of Code Switching and Interlanguage in Bilinguality: Implications for Bilingual Instruction.† 1994. The Journal of Educational Issues of Language Minority Students, v14 p69-88, Winter 1994 Geetha. V. â€Å"Code Mixing and Code Switching in Tamil Proverbs Language in India.† . 2010. Volume 10 : 5 May 2010. ISSN 1930-2940 Kiranmayi,N.C. â€Å"Code Switching and Code Mixing in Arab Students – Some Implications Language in India.† 2010. Volume 10:8 August 2010. Web. â€Å"Mixing and Code Switching†. 2010. Bilingual Age. Web. Rabu. â€Å"Code Mixing and Code Switching.† 2011. My Courses. Web. Redouane,R. â€Å"Linguistic Constraints on Codeswitching and Codemixing of Bilingual Moroccan Arabic-French Speakers in Canada.† 2005. ISB4: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism, ed. James Cohen, Kara T. McAlister, Kellie Rolstad, and Jeff MacSwan, 1921-1933. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press Ruan, J. â€Å"A Study of Bilingual Chinese/English Childrens Code Switching Behavior. Spring†Ã‚   2003: Volume 7, Issue 1

Thursday, November 21, 2019

American Nurses Association Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

American Nurses Association - Essay Example Potential conflicts might arise from intra-professional integrity, collective responsibility, assertion of values, responsibilities to the public, implementing professional standards in clinical, administrative and educational practice, responsibility for care environment, influencing the environment with moral virtues and values, preserving integrity and ethical character, maintaining confidentiality, responsibility and accountability in judgment and action etc. There could be many areas of conflict when others employees, care givers and family members are involved. Conflicts could be avoided by understanding, collaboration and co-operation with other care-givers, by being flexible without compromising the nursing ethics and with a thoroughly psychological insight of the problems. A complete understanding of duties and responsibilities and genuinely caring for patients will win the battle any day without giving scope for conflict and aggression. In this document, there is no reference how the rights are secured; but there is a promise that they are secured in every hospital. Patient's rights are protected and secured by State and Federal laws and hospitals who are obliged to protect the privacy of medical information and records. The governments and the hospitals are responsible for protecting all rights of every patient under all the circumstances. Health for life with safety, dignity and privacy and affordable care are the major rights of the patient. Availability of the best information, highest quality care with efficiency focusing on wellness, trained care providers, Clean and safe environment, help with bills and filling insurance claims, latest technology, cutting-edge medical research, well-equipped facilities, freedom of choice without bias and health provision at right time are the rights of all patients. Preparing the patient and the family with proper information and medical necessities too are the rights of the patients. Patient is provided legal help if he or his family members feel that the patient was not cared for. It can result in suspension of care givers and the hospital could be liable to claims. Patients and their families can claim compensation and if the allegations are proved beyond suspicion of willful neglect, care givers could face imprisonment. Patient rights are connected with the caregiver duties. They are supposed to be in touch with the most recent technology and research of continued progress, and it is their duty that patient is given all possible information, medication, and it is patient's right to make his choice. Duties and rights are connected with one another and they form the basic of patient and professional care relationship. Q. 3: Resource allocation is done by the panel of experts and administration after assessing the medical expenses involved. No one person is given the right of making all the decisions. Usually all the caring professions are involved before the allocation is made. Advisory committees are involved with the decision making on resource allocation and it is not an